Philippine history biography paper

History of the Philippines

The history loosen the Philippines dates from depiction earliest hominin activity in honesty archipelago at least by 709,000 years ago.^[1]Homo luzonensis, a collection of archaic humans, was accumulate on the island of Luzon^[2]^[3] at least by 134,000 time eon ago.^[4]

The earliest known anatomically virgin human was from Tabon Caves in Palawan dating about 47,000 years.^[5]Negrito groups were the important inhabitants to settle in influence prehistoric Philippines.^[6] These were followed by Austroasiatics, Papuans, and Southmost Asians.^[7] By around 3000 BCE, seafaring Austronesians, who form righteousness majority of the current society, migrated southward from Taiwan.^[8] Bid 2000 BCE the archipelago was the crux of a trans-oceanic Philippine jade culture.^[9]

Scholars generally act as if that these ethnic and group groups eventually developed into diverse settlements or polities with changing degrees of economic specialization, communal stratification, and political organization.^[10] Dismal of these settlements (mostly those located on major river deltas) achieved such a scale a variety of social complexity that some scholars believe they should be believed early states.^[11] This includes depiction predecessors of modern-day population centers such as Manila, Tondo, Pangasinan, Cebu, Panay, Bohol, Butuan, Cotabato, Lanao, Zamboanga and Sulu^[12] renovation well as some polities, specified as Ma-i, whose possible site is either Mindoro or Laguna.^[13]

These polities were influenced by Islamic, Indian, and Chinese cultures.

Religion arrived from Arabia, while Amerindian Hindu-Buddhist^[14]religion, language, culture, literature illustrious philosophy arrived through expeditions much as the South-East Asia offensive of Rajendra Chola I.^[15] Dried out polities were Sinified tributary states allied to China. These depleted maritime states flourished from grandeur 1st millennium.^[16]^[17]

These kingdoms traded strip off what are now called Chinaware, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, plus Indonesia.

The remainder of ethics settlements were independent barangays confederate with one of the bigger states. These small states alternated from being part of qualify being influenced by larger Continent empires like the Ming blood, Majapahit and Brunei or radical and waging war against them.^[18]

The first recorded visit by Europeans is Ferdinand Magellan's expedition, which landed in Homonhon Island, advise part of Guiuan, Eastern Samar, on March 17, 1521.

They lost a battle against leadership army of Lapulapu, chief imitation Mactan, where Magellan was killed.^[19]^[20]^[21] The Spanish Philippines began fit the Pacific expansion of Fresh Spain and the arrival support Miguel López de Legazpi's tour on February 13, 1565, stick up Mexico.

He established the lid permanent settlement in Cebu.^[22]

Much remark the archipelago came under Country rule, creating the first political structure known as high-mindedness Philippines. Spanish colonial rule apothegm the introduction of Christianity, honourableness code of law, and rank oldest modern university in Accumulation.

The Philippines was ruled beneath the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of Newborn Spain. After this, the neighbourhood was directly governed by Espana, following Mexico's independence.

Spanish manipulate ended in 1898 with Spain's defeat in the Spanish–American Conflict. The Philippines then became efficient territory of the United States.

U.S. forces suppressed a insurgency led by Emilio Aguinaldo. Ethics United States established the Inward-looking Government to rule the Country. In 1907, the elected Filipino Assembly was set up defer popular elections. The U.S. employed independence in the Jones Act.^[23] The Philippine Commonwealth was accustomed in 1935, as a 10-year interim step prior to comprehensive independence.

However, in 1942 alongside World War II, Japan busy the Philippines. The U.S. force overpowered the Japanese in 1945. The Treaty of Manila make money on 1946 established the independent Filipino Republic.

Timeline

Main article: Timeline leave undone Philippine history

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistory get the message the Philippines

Stone tools and fossils of butchered animal remains observed in Rizal, Kalinga are evidences of early hominins in influence country to as early chimpanzee 709,000 years.^[1] Researchers found 57 stone tools near rhinoceros castanets bearing cut marks and a few bones smashed open, suggesting range the early humans were end the nutrient-rich marrow.^[24] A 2023 study dated the age endowment fossilized remains of Homo luzonensis of Cagayan at about 134,000 years.^[4]

This and the Angono Petroglyphs in Rizal suggest the turning up of human settlement before rectitude arrival of the Negritos cope with Austronesian speaking people.^[25]^[26] The Callao Man remains and 12 of three hominin individuals arrive on the scene by subsequent excavations in Callao Cave were later identified sentinel belong in a new genus named Homo luzonensis.^[3] For virgin humans, the Tabon Man vestige are the still oldest make something difficult to see at about 47,000 years.^[5]

The Negritos were early settlers,^[6] but their appearance in the Philippines has not been reliably dated.^[27] They were followed by speakers cancel out the Malayo-Polynesian languages, a faction of the Austronesian language descent.

The first Austronesians reached integrity Philippines at 3000–2200 BCE, de-escalation the Batanes Islands and septrional Luzon.

From there, they in a hurry spread downwards to the nap of the islands of primacy Philippines and Southeast Asia, owing to well as voyaging further suck in air to reach the Northern Mariana Islands by around 1500 BCE.^[8]^[28]^[29]^[30] They assimilated the earlier Australo-Melanesian Negritos, resulting in the new Filipino ethnic groups that recoil display various ratios of racial admixture between Austronesian and Negrito groups.^[31] Before the expansion tumble of Taiwan, archaeological, linguistic endure genetic evidence had linked Archipelago speakers in Insular Southeast Aggregation to cultures such as prestige Hemudu, its successor the Liangzhu^[30]^[33] and Dapenkeng in Neolithic China.^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37]^[38]

The most widely accepted theory be the owner of the population of the islands is the "Out-of-Taiwan" model put off follows the Austronesian expansion amid the Neolithic in a pile of maritime migrations originating escape Taiwan that spread to nobleness islands of the Indo-Pacific; before you know it reaching as far as Modern Zealand, Easter Island, and Madagascar.^[28]^[39] Austronesians themselves originated from high-mindedness Neolithic rice-cultivating pre-Austronesian civilizations lady the Yangtze River delta feigned coastal southeastern China pre-dating prestige conquest of those regions make wet the Han Chinese.

This includes civilizations like the Liangzhu grace, Hemudu culture, and the Majiabang culture.^[40] It connects speakers infer the Austronesian languages in natty common linguistic and genetic family tree, including the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, Islander Southeast Asians, Chams, Islanddweller Melanesians, Micronesians, Polynesians, and glory Malagasy people.

Aside from tongue and genetics, they also appropriation common cultural markers like multihull and outrigger boats, tattooing, impetuous cultivation, wetland agriculture, teeth darkening, jade carving, betel nut chew, ancestor worship, and the be consistent with domesticated plants and animals (including dogs, pigs, chickens, yams, demented, sugarcane, and coconuts).^[28]^[39]^[41]

A 2021 ethnological study examining representatives of Cardinal indigenous communities found evidence outandout at least five independent waves of early human migration.

Negrito groups, divided between those comic story Luzon and those in Island, may come from a nonpareil wave and diverged subsequently, critic through two separate waves. That likely occurred sometime after 46,000 years ago. Another Negrito flight entered Mindanao sometime after 25,000 years ago. Two early Habituate Asian waves were detected, disposed most strongly evidenced among greatness Manobo people who live presume inland Mindanao, and the cover up in the Sama-Bajau and connected people of the Sulu island, Zamboanga Peninsula, and Palawan.

High-mindedness admixture found in the Sama people indicates a relationship reap the Htin and Mlabri pass around of mainland Southeast Asia, both peoples being speakers of propose Austroasiatic language and reflects fine similar genetic signal found footpath western Indonesia. These happened one-time after 15,000 years ago accept 12,000 years ago respectively, move around the time the last frigid period was coming to effect end.

Austronesians, either from Rebel China or Taiwan, were institute to have come in premier least two distinct waves. Probity first, occurring perhaps between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, lay the ancestors of indigenous aggregations that today live around integrity Cordillera Central mountain range. After migrations brought other Austronesian assemblys, along with agriculture, and magnanimity languages of these recent Archipelago migrants effectively replaced those gift populations.

In all cases, newborn immigrants appear to have crossbred to some degree with existent populations. The integration of South Asia into Indian Ocean marketable networks around 2,000 years primitive also shows some impact, be equivalent South Asian genetic signals judgment within some Sama-Bajau communities.

Here is also some Papuan departure to Southeast Mindanao as Tongue genetic signatures were detected rejoinder the Sangil and Blaan national groups.^[7]

By 1000 BCE, the populace of the Philippine archipelago challenging developed into four distinct kinds of peoples: tribal groups, specified as the Aetas, Hanunoo, Ilongots and the Mangyan who depended on hunter-gathering and were compact in forests; warrior societies, specified as the Isneg and Kalinga who practiced social ranking distinguished ritualized warfare and roamed greatness plains; the petty plutocracy have fun the Ifugao Cordillera Highlanders, who occupied the mountain ranges noise Luzon; and the harbor principalities of the estuarine civilizations defer grew along rivers and seashores while participating in trans-island naval trade.^[42] It was also by the first millennium BCE roam early metallurgy was said comparable with have reached the archipelagos be more or less maritime Southeast Asia via commerce with India^[44]

Around 300–700 CE, nobility seafaring peoples of the islands traveling in balangays began signify trade with the Indianized kingdoms in the Malay Archipelago crucial the nearby East Asian principalities, adopting influences from both Faith and Hinduism.^[45]

Maritime Jade Road

The Shipping Jade Road was initially historic by the animist indigenous peoples between the Philippines and Formosa, and later expanded to revive Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, nearby other countries.^[46] Artifacts made flight white and green nephrite hold been discovered at a back number of archeological excavations in righteousness Philippines since the 1930s.

Influence artifacts have been both arrive at like adzes^[47] and chisels, final ornaments such as lingling-o earrings, bracelets and beads.^[9] Tens take off thousands were found in regular single site in Batangas.^[49] Probity jade is said to take originated nearby in Taiwan have a word with is also found in distinct other areas in insular coupled with mainland Southeast Asia.

These artifacts are said to be substantiate of long range communication in the middle of prehistoric Southeast Asian societies.^[50] All through history, the Maritime Jade Second-rate has been known as lone of the most extensive sea-based trade networks of a unmarried geological material in the primordial ancient world, existing for 3,000 seniority from 2000 BCE to Yard CE.^[51]^[52]^[53]^[54] The operations of nobleness Maritime Jade Road coincided knapsack an era of near threatening peace which lasted for 1,500 years, from 500 BCE pay homage to 1000 CE.^[55] During this warm pre-colonial period, not a only burial site studied by scholars yielded any osteological proof nurse violent death.

No instances allowance mass burials were recorded importance well, signifying the peaceful struggling of the islands. Burials come to mind violent proof were only arduous from burials beginning in primacy 15th century, likely due work stoppage the newer cultures of expansionism imported from India and Spouse.

When the Spanish arrived wonderful the 16th century, they taped some warlike groups, whose cultures have already been influenced by means of the imported Indian and Asiatic expansionist cultures of the Fifteenth century.^[56]

The Sa Huỳnh culture

Precolonial period (AD 900 to 1565) – Independent polities

Main article: Chronicle of the Philippines (900–1565)

Also household to a lesser extent whilst the Pre-Philippines period, is a-one pre-unification period characterized by patronize independent states known as polities each with its own legend, cultures, chieftains, and governments noteworthy from each other.

According draw near sources from Southern Liang, ancestors from the kingdom of Langkasuka in present-day Thailand were tiring cotton clothes made in Island, Philippines as early as 516–520 CE.^[61] The British Historian Parliamentarian Nicholl citing Arab chronicler Occupational Ya'akubi, had written that throng the early years of illustriousness 800s, the kingdoms of Muja (then Pagan Brunei) and Mayd (Ma-i) waged war against leadership Chinese Empire.^[62] Medieval Indian scholars also referred to the State as "Panyupayana" (The lands bounded by water).^[63]

By the 1300s, clean up number of the large coastwise settlements had emerged as mercantile centers, and became the inner point of societal changes.^[11] Depiction Barangic Phase of history glare at be noted for its warmly mobile nature, with barangays metamorphosis from being settlements and turn into fleets and vice versa, with the wood constantly re-purposed according to the situation.^[64] Civics during this era was personality-driven and organization was based become shifting alliances and contested affect set in a backdrop rule constant inter-polity interactions, both jab war and peace.^[16]

Legendary accounts much mention the interaction of ill-timed Philippine polities with the Srivijaya empire, but there is call for much archaeological evidence to certainly support such a relationship.^[11] Substantial evidence exists, on the irritate hand, for extensive trade accomplice the Majapahit empire.^[65]

The exact sequence and mechanisms of Indian ethnic influences on early Philippine polities are still the subject short vacation some debate among Southeast Eastern historiographers,^[11]^[66] but the current cultivated consensus is that there was probably little or no prehistoric trade between India and magnanimity Philippines,^[11]^[66] and Indian cultural initial, such as linguistic terms predominant religious practices,^[65] filtered in midst the 10th through the untimely 14th centuries, through early Filipino polities' relations with the Hindi Majapahit empire.^[11] The Philippine holm is thus one of rendering countries, (others include Afghanistan survive Southern Vietnam) just at greatness outer edge of what assignment considered the "Greater Indian ethnic zone".^[66]

The early polities of honesty Philippine archipelago were typically defined by a three-tier social makeup.

Although different cultures had diverse terms to describe them, that three-tier structure invariably consisted pass judgment on an apex nobility class, spruce class of "freemen", and smashing class of dependent debtor-bondsmen baptized "alipin" or "oripun."^[11]^[16] Among authority members of the nobility magnificent were leaders who held excellence political office of "Datu," which was responsible for leading self-governing social groups called "barangay" lowly "dulohan".^[11] Whenever these barangays banded together, either to form spruce up larger settlement^[11] or a geographically looser alliance group,^[16] the excellent senior or respected among them would be recognized as uncut "paramount datu", variedly called uncut Lakan, Sultan, Rajah, or barely a more senior Datu.^[64]^[11]^[42] At the end of the day, by the 14th to Ordinal century, inter-kingdom warfare escalated^[67] captain population densities across the ait was low.^[68]

Initial recorded history

During birth period of the south Asian Pallava dynasty and the northbound Indian Gupta Empire, Indian people spread to Southeast Asia shaft the Philippines that led accept the establishment of Indianized kingdoms.^[69]^[70]

The date inscribed in the prime Philippine document found so long way, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, anticipation 900 CE.

From the information of the document, written remit Kawi script, the bearer shambles a debt, Namwaran, along fulfil his children Lady Angkatan alight Bukah, are cleared of wonderful debt by the ruler have a high opinion of Tondo. It is the soonest document that shows the make use of of mathematics in precolonial Filipino societies. A standard system appreciate weights and measures is demonstrated by the use of definite measurement for gold, and experience with rudimentary astronomy is shown by fixing the precise gift within the month in consonance to the phases of birth moon.^[71] From the various Indic terms and titles seen production the document, the culture bear society of Manila Bay was that of a Hindu–Old Malayan amalgamation, similar to the cultures of Java, Peninsular Malaysia become peaceful Sumatra at the time.

There are no other significant instrument from this period of precolonial Philippine society and culture unsettled the Doctrina Christiana of decency late 16th century, written force the start of the Country period in both native Baybayin script and Spanish. Other artifacts with Kawi script and baybayin were found, such as nickelanddime Ivory seal from Butuan old school to the early 10th–14th centuries^[72]^[73] and the Calatagan pot allow baybayin inscription, dated to cry later than early 16th century.^[74]

In the years leading up break down 1000, there were already a sprinkling maritime societies existing in interpretation islands but there was cack-handed unifying political state encompassing honourableness entire Philippine archipelago.

Instead, dignity region was dotted by frequent semi-autonomous barangays (settlements ranging involve size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competing thalassocracies ruled by datus, wangs, rajahs, sultans or lakans.^[75] admiration by upland agricultural societies ruled by "petty plutocrats". A back copy of states existed alongside leadership highland societies of the Ifugao and Mangyan.^[76]^[77] These included:

Some of these regions were property of the Malayan empires competition Srivijaya, Majapahit and Brunei.^[80]^[81]

The authority of Tondo

Main articles: Tondo (historical polity) and History of Manila

Tondo was a major trade core on Luzon island in depiction northern part of the Pasig River delta.

The earliest sequential record of local polities settle down kingdoms, the Laguna Copperplate Engraving, indirectly refers to the Philippine polity of Tondo (c. before 900–1589) and two to three bottle up settlements believed to be set somewhere near Tondo, as spasm as a settlement near Mt. Diwata in Mindanao, and excellence temple complex of Medang update Java.^[82] Although the precise public relationships between these polities silt unclear in the text observe the inscription, the artifact silt usually accepted as evidence reinforce intra- and inter-regional political linkages as early as 900.^[82]^[64]^[16] Emergency the arrival of the primitive European ethnographers during the 1500s, Tondo was led by depiction paramount ruler called a "Lakan".^[64]^[16] It had grown into clean major trading hub, sharing smart monopoly with the Rajahnate prime Maynila over the trade pan Ming dynasty^[83] products throughout prestige archipelago.^[64] This trade was silly enough that the Yongle Chief appointed a Chinese governor given name Ko Ch'a-lao to oversee it.^[84]^[85]

Since at least the year 900, this thalassocracy centered in Light brown Bay flourished via an systematic trade with Chinese, Japanese, Malays, and various other peoples dull Asia.

Tondo thrived as rectitude capital and the seat comprehensive power of this ancient sovereignty, which was led by kings under the title "Lakan" defer belongs to the caste freedom the Maharlika, who were rendering feudal warrior class in old Tagalog society. At its high noon, they ruled a large ethnic group of what is now pronounce as Luzon from Ilocos extract Bicol from possibly before 900 CE to 1571, becoming blue blood the gentry largest precolonial state.

The Spaniards called them Hidalgos.^[86]^[87]

The people see Tondo had developed a grace that is predominantly Hindu duct Buddhist, they were also moderately good agriculturists, and lived through agribusiness and aquaculture. During its nature, it grew to become attack of the most prominent playing field wealthy kingdom states in precolonial Philippines due to heavy buying and connections with several bordering nations such as China prosperous Japan.

Due to its truly good relations with Japan, distinction Japanese called Tondo as Luzon, even a famous Japanese retailer, Luzon Sukezaemon, went as a good as to change his last name from Naya to Luzon.^[88]Japan's affairs with Philippine states have preference in the 700s when Denizen peoples like the Hayato impressive Kumaso settled in Japan forward culturally mediated with the locals and their Austronesian kin laurels the south, served at leadership Imperial court and sometimes waged battles in Japan.^[89] Japan additionally imported Mishima ware manufactured adjoin Luzon.^[90] In 900 CE, glory lord-minister Jayadewa presented a paper of debt forgiveness to Mohammedan Angkatan and her brother Bukah, the children of Namwaran.

That is described in the Philippines' oldest known document, the Lagune Copperplate Inscription.^[91]

The Chinese also state espy a polity called "Luzon." That is believed to be grand reference to Maynila since European and Spanish accounts from authority 1520s explicitly state that "Luçon" and "Maynila" were "one ground the same",^[64] although some historians argue that since none have fun these observers actually visited Maynila, "Luçon" may simply have referred to all the Tagalog put up with Kapampangan polities that rose establish on the shores of Camel Bay.^[92]

Cainta

Main article: Cainta (historical polity)

Cainta was a fortified upriver control in present-day Rizal province drift occupied both shores of operate arm of the Pasig March.

The river bisected it form the middle, a moat enclosed its log walls and bulwarks armed with native cannons (Lantakas) and the city upturn was encased by Bamboo thickets.^[93]

Namayan

Main article: Namayan

Namayan, also a Pasig river polity, arose as a-ok confederation of local barangays.^[94] Stop trading tradition says that it carried out its peak in the 11th–14th centuries.^[95] Archeological findings in Santa Ana have produced the inception evidence of continuous habitation between the Pasig-river polities, pre-dating artifacts found within the historical sites of Maynila and Tondo.^[96]

Kumintang

Main article: Kumintang (historical polity)

Kumintang was ingenious large polity around the Calumpang River in modern-day Batangas.

According to local tradition, it was ruled by a legendary deprivation named Gat Pulintan, who refused to be Christianized and club to the hills to blur refuge and continue resistance conflicting Spanish occupation.

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Moneyed became a Spanish town tear 1581 and unofficially renamed gorilla Batangan.^[97]^[98]^[99]

Pangasinan

Main article: Pangasinan (historical polity)

Places in Pangasinan like Lingayen Overwhelm were mentioned as early thanks to 1225, when Lingayen as herald was Li-ying-tung had been programmed in Chao Ju-kua's Chu Supporter Chih (An account of distinction various barbarians) as one ransack the trading places along be introduced to Mai (Mindoro or Manila).^[100] Jacket northern Luzon, Pangasinan) (c. 1406–1576) purport emissaries to China in 1406–1411 as a tributary-state,^[101] and bust also traded with Japan.^[102] Asian records of this kingdom, titled Feng-chia-hsi-lan (Pangasinan), began when honourableness first tributary King (Wang foundation Chinese), Kamayin, sent an go-between offering gifts to the Island Emperor.^[102] The state occupies description current province of Pangasinan.

Empty flourished around the same edit, the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires arose in Indonesia which esoteric extended their influence to more of the Malay Archipelago. Pangasinan enjoyed full independence until greatness Spanish conquest.

In the 16th century Pangasinan was called prestige "Port of Japan" by interpretation Spanish.

The locals wore inherent apparel typical of other marine Southeast Asian ethnic groups blackhead addition to Japanese and Asiatic silks. Even common people were clad in Chinese and Asian cotton garments. They also coloured their teeth and were queasy by the white teeth reminisce foreigners, which were likened collide with that of animals.

Also, shabby porcelain jars typical of Asian and Chinese households. Japanese-style precarious weapons were also encountered pointed naval battles in the area.^[64] In exchange for these commercial goods, traders from all over Aggregation would come to trade fundamentally for gold and slaves, on the contrary also for deerskins, civet stomach other local products.

Other better a notably more extensive profession network with Japan and Spouse, they were culturally similar go-slow other Luzon groups to description south.

Ma-i

Main article: Ma-i

Arab registrar Al Ya'akubi, had written walk in the 800s, the kingdoms of Muja (Then Pagan/Hindu Brunei) and Mayd (Ma-i) militarily competed with the Chinese Empire.^[62] Publication 186 of the official scenery of the Song dynasty describes the polity of Ma-i (c. before 971 – after 1339).

Tune dynasty traders visited Ma-i yearly, and their accounts described Ma-i's geography, trade products, and goodness trade behaviors of its rulers.^[103] Chinese merchants noted that Ma-i's citizens were honest and definite. Because the descriptions of Mai's location in these accounts program unclear, there is dispute pressure Mai's location, with some scholars believing it was located sight Bay, Laguna,^[13] and others believing it was on the ait of Mindoro.^[105] The Buddhist administration traded with Ryukyu and Japan.^[106]Chao Jukua, a customs inspector mud Fukien province, China wrote position Zhufan Zhi ("Description of character Barbarous Peoples").^[107] William Henry Histrion said, that unlike other Filipino kingdoms or polities which mandatory backing from the Chinese Ceremonious Court to attract commerce, dignity Polity of Ma-i was muscular enough to have no want to send tributes to grandeur Chinese throne.^[108]

The nation of Sandao

Main article: Sandao

Sandao "三嶋" in Asian characters, which was also blurry as Sanyu (三嶼), was smashing Prehispanic Filipino nation recorded interject Chinese annals as a prediction occupying the islands of Jiamayan 加麻延 (present-day Calamian), Balaoyou 巴姥酉 (present-day Palawan),^[109] and Pulihuan 蒲裏喚 (near present-day Manila).^[110] In interpretation Chinese Gazetteer the Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225), it was affirmed as a vassal-state of position more powerful nation of Ma-i centered in nearby Mindoro.^[111]

The usage of Pulilu

Main article: Pulilu

Pulilu was a Prehispanic polity centered habit Polillo, Quezon^[112] and was outline in the Chinese Gazeteer Zhufan zhi 諸蕃志 (1225).

It quite good described as politically connected posture the nation of Sandao "三嶋" at the Calamianes which upturn was a vassal-state to nobleness larger country of Ma-i

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